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A history of the english language free essay sample

Contentss Introduction Chapter 1. LINGUISTIC SITUATION IN OLD ENGLISH AND MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD 1.1 The development of Futhark 1.1.1 The runic alphabet as an Old Germanic authorship tradition 1.1.2 Old English literature in the period of Anglo-Saxon cultural extension 1.2 Linguistic state of affairs in the Middle English 1.2.1 Linguistic state of affairs in Medieval England after the Norman Conquest 1.2.2 Dialectal Diversity in the Middle English Period 1.3 The Middle English principal 1.3.1 Geoffrey Chaucer and his loaning support of the London Standard # 8217 ; s diffusion 1.3.2 The function of the printing in the formation of the English linguistic communication 1.3.3 Principal Middle English written records as a contemplation of ongoing alterations in Standardization Chapter 2. CHANGING CONDITIONS IN THE PERIOD OF STANDARDISATION OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 2.1 Beginnings of Standard English 2.1.1 The Rise of Standard English 2.1.2 The importance of London English 2.1.3 The importance of Chancery Line 2.2 Middle English Spelling and Sounds 2.2.1 Changes in Spelling due to the debut of Gallic scribal tradition 2.2.2 Middle English Pronunciation 2.3 Changes in Grammar in Middle and Early New English 2.3.1 Middle English Noun 2.3.2 Middle English and Early New English Adjective and Pronoun 2.3.3 Middle English and Early New English Verb 2.4 The complexness of Middle English Vocabulary 2.4.1 Gallic factor in the development of Middle English Vocabulary 2.4.1.1 Gallic influence on the English Vocabulary 2.4.1.2 Core semantic domains of loanwords from Gallic 2.4.2 Latin adoptions in the Middle and Early New English 2.4.3 Other beginnings of adoptions in the Middle English CONCLUSION Mentions APPENDIX 1 INTODUCTION lingual history English linguistic communication The English linguistic communication has had a singular history. When we foremost catch it in historical records, it is a linguistic communication of none-too-civilized folks on the continent of Europe along the North Sea. From those murky and insignificant beginnings, English has become the most widespread linguistic communication in the universe, used by more peoples for more intents than any linguistic communication on Earth. The early portion of the Modern English saw the constitution of the Standard written English we know today. Its standardisation was foremost due to the demand of the cardinal authorities for regular processs by which to carry on its concern, to maintain its records and to pass on with the citizens of the land. Standard linguistic communications are frequently the byproducts of bureaucratism, developed to run into a specific administrative demand, instead than self-generated developments of the public or the ruse of authors and bookmans.A standard linguistic communication is dispersed widely over a the big part, is respected, because people recognize its utility and is codified in the sense of holding been described so that people know what it is [ 27 ; 54 ] . A standard linguistic communication has to be described before it is to the full standard. The intent of the paper in inquiry is to retrace development of the Standard English linguistic communication formation every bit good as to analyze lingual background of its constitution. The intent of the research stipulated the agreement and back-to-back resolution of the undermentioned undertakings: 1. to reexamine written records in an early phase of the English linguistic communication development that is of Old English Period ; 2. to inspect the beginnings of the Standard English linguistic communication ; 3. to analyse lingual state of affairs in the Middle English Age before the Standardization ; 4. to see the chief factors lending to the Standard English linguistic communication development ; 5. to analyze alterations in the English linguistic communication on all degrees during its standardisation. The topicality of the paper given can be explained by the undermentioned fact: in the class of its history the English linguistic communication has changed a batch, in other words it has been globalized. Additionally, it gave birth to many regional assortments. And although most people today speak a assortment of regional English or an alloy of standard and regional Englishes, and change by reversal such labels as BBC English or # 8220 ; the Queen # 8217 ; s English # 8221 ; for what they perceive to be a pure Standard English it is still vitally of import to cognize what the Standard English linguistic communication represents as such and what is more of import to utilize it to be able to pass on with English talkers of assorted cultural backgrounds. The personal part to the research work lies in an effort to incorporate cardinal and modern beginnings on the English linguistic communication formation to give a incompatible position of the issue. The undermentioned methods were applied in the research: 1. Descriptive analysis ; 2. Historical-philological analysis ; 3. Comparative analysis. This work consists of debut, two chapters, decision, list of mentions and appendixes. The debut covers topicality, theoretical base of research, every bit good as, methods of research and the construction of the work. In the 1st chapter we are concerned with lingual state of affairs in Old English and Medieval period. The 2nd chapter is dedicated to the alterations in the linguistic communication on phonic, lexical and grammar degrees that subsequently constituted the footing of English Standard. The decision colligates the chief propositions and ultimate consequences of the research. The consequences of the given work were introduced in March, 2011 at the scientific conference in the dissolution group devoted to Linguistic text research at Irkutsk State Linguistic University. The research is founded on cardinal plants of well-known bookmans such as A.C. Baugh [ 1978 ] , K. Brunner [ 2008 ] , D. Crystal [ 1995, 1997 ] , O. Jespersen [ 1938 ] ; Russian scientists: V.D Arakin [ 1985 ] , A.A. Rastorgueva [ 1997 ] , B.A. Ilyish [ 1972 ] and many others. Chapter 1. LINGUISTIC SITUATION IN OLD ENGLISH AND MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD 1.1 The development of Futhark The earliest signifier of German authorship is normally believed to be connected to the early Germanic runes.Old English was foremost written in the runic alphabet which was called FUTHARK. It was named after the first six letters. The ground for the alone sequences of characters in the futhark is unknown. It is proposed that this sequence was the consequence of some mnemotechnic device which is no longer retrievable, but which may hold left some little reverberation in the runic verse forms preserved in the medieval manuscripts [ 38 ] . The Old Germanic runic alphabet consisted of 24 letters. In England at least 30 runic letters were used to reflect the old English phonological alterations. It can be written both horizontally in either way. The agreement of runic characters differs greatly from the order of letters in all other European alphabets. The name of each runic letter was associated with a certain word in the Old English linguistic communication. Therefore the runic letters can stand for these words. Besides, each runic letter could stand for the initial sound of the corresponding word. Therefore if we read merely initial letters in the words for which the runic letters stand in the above mentioned six stanzas, we get Futhark [ 41 ] . This alphabet was used in northern Europe # 8211 ; in Scandinavia, contemporary Germany, and the British Isles # 8211 ; and it has been preserved in approximately 4,000 letterings and in a few manuscripts. It dates from around the third century AD. No 1 knows precisely where the alphabet came from, but it seems to be a development of one of the alphabets of southern Europe, likely by the Roman, which runes resemble closely [ 28 ] . The runic alphabet is a specifically Germanic alphabet, non to be found in the linguistic communications of other groups. The letters are angular ; consecutive lines are preferred, curved lines avoided ; this is due to the fact that the runic letterings were cut in difficult stuff: rock, wood or bone. The forms of some letters resemble to those of Greek or Latin, others have non been traced to any known alphabet, and the order of the runic letters is surely original [ 38 ] . An early outgrowth of Futhark was employed by Goths, and so it is known as Gothic Runes. It was used until 500 CE when it was replaced by the Greek-based Gothic alphabet. One theory refering the beginning of Futhark provinces that the Goths were the discoverers of Futhark, but there is deficient back uping grounds to turn out this theory. In England, the Anglo-Saxons brought Futhark from Continental Europe in the fifth century CE and modified it into the thirty-three-letter Futharc to suit sound alterations that were happening in Old English, the linguistic communication spoken by the Anglo-Saxons. Even the name # 8216 ; Futhorc # 8217 ; is grounds to a phonological alteration where the long [ a ] vowel in Old English evolved into a ulterior [ O ] vowel. Even though Futhark continued to boom as a authorship system, it started to worsen with the spread of the Latin alphabet. In England, Anglo-Saxon Futharc started to be replaced by the Latin alphabet by the ninth century, and did non last much more past the Norman Conquest of 1066. Futhark continued to be used in Scandinavia for centuries longer, but by 1600 CE, it had become nil more than wonders among bookmans and antiquaries [ 28 ; 38 ; 41 ; 54 ] . 1.1.1The runic alphabet as an Old Germanic authorship tradition Harmonizing to David Crystal what runic letter ( OE run ) means is problematic. There is a long standing tradition which attributes to it such senses as # 8216 ; whisper # 8217 ; , # 8216 ; enigma # 8217 ; , # 8216 ; secret # 8217 ; , proposing that the symbols were originally used to charming or mystery rites. Such associations were surely present in the manner the heathen Vikings ( and perchance Continental Germans ) used to matching word, but there is no grounds that they were present in Old English. Current research suggests that the word tally had been exhaustively assimilated in to Anglos-Saxon Christianity, and intend merely # 8216 ; sharing of cognition and ideas # 8217 ; . Any extension to the word of thaumaturgy and superstitious notions is non portion of the native tradition. Modern English word runic letter is non even a endurance of the Old English word, but a ulterior adoption from Norse via Latin [ 28 ] . For the modern, charming sense of runic letter the English linguistic communication is hence indebted to the Scandinavian and non Anglo-Saxon tradition. In this sense which surfaced in the nineteenth century in a assortment of esoteric publications, and which lives on the popular and antic imaginativeness of the twentieth century, possibly most famously in the authorship of John Ronald Tolkien. There are less than 30 clear letterings in Old English, some incorporating merely a individual name.The two most celebrated illustrations both day of the month from the eighth century, and present the Northumbrian idiom [ 20 ; 28 ; 38 ] . One of them is an lettering on a box called the # 8220 ; Franks Casket # 8221 ; . It was discovered in the early old ages of the 19th in France, and was presented to the British Museum by British archaeologist, A.W Franks. The coffin is a little box made of whale bone ; the four sides are carved: there are images in the centre and runic letterings around. The longest among them, in alliterative poetry, tells the narrative of the giant bone, of which the Casket was made. The Ruthwell Cross is a fifteen- pess tall cross inscribed and ornamented on all sides. The chief lettering has been reconstructed into a transition from an Old English verse form, the dream of the Rood, which was besides found in another version in a ulterior manuscript. Many runic letterings have been preserved on arms, coins, talismans, gravestones, rings, assorted cross fragments [ 20 ; 28 ; 38 ; 41 ; 54 ] . 1.1.2 Old English literature in the period of Anglo-Saxon cultural extension It is frequently postulated that there is a dark age between the reaching of the Anglo Saxons and the first reaching of Old English manuscripts. A few scattered letterings in the linguistic communication day of the month from the 5th and 6th centuries, written in the runic alphabet which the encroachers brought with them, but these give really small information about what the linguistic communication was like. The literary age began merely after the reaching of the Roman missionaries, led by Augustine, who came at that place to Kent in 597 AD. Because of the progressively literary clime # 1054 ; ld English manuscripts besides began to be written much earlier, so, that the earliest common texts from other north European states. The first texts dating from around 700, are glossaries of Latin words translated into English, and a few early letterings and verse forms. But really small stuff remains from this period. Doubtless many manuscripts were burned during the eighth century Viking s invasion. There are a figure of short verse forms, once more about wholly preserved in the late manuscripts, over half of them concerned with Christian subjects # 8211 ; fables of the saints, infusions from the Bible, and devotional pieces. Several others reflect the Germanic tradition, covering with such subjects as war, going, nationalism, and jubilation. Most extant Old English texts were written in the period following the reign of King Alfred, who arranged for many Latin plants to be translated including Bede # 8217 ; s Ecclesiastical History. But the entire principal is highly little and makes approximately 3, 5 million # 8211 ; the equivalent of about 30 moderate-sized modern novels. Merely five per cent of this sum is poetry [ 14 ; 16 ; 24 ; 28 ; 39 ; 41 ] . The Anglo-Saxon ethno-social system began organizing as a consequence of British invasion at the terminal of the sixth century. This brought about some considerable alterations in the societal construction of the Anglo-Saxon society. To acquire a better apprehension of the Anglo-Saxon society it is deserving sing the Old-English words of position. The key-words are given below in order of precedency: cyning # 8216 ; main # 8217 ; , subsequently the laminitis the royal dynasty ealdorman # 8216 ; sub-king # 8217 ; , a sort of familial nobility ; subsequently replaced by the term eorl # 254 ; egn # 8216 ; warrior # 8217 ; # 269 ; eorl # 8216 ; a free adult male # 8217 ; , # 8216 ; husbandman # 8217 ; # 254 ; eow # 8216 ; a slave # 8217 ; , # 8216 ; servant # 8217 ; The given construction provided an effectual operation of well tough ethno-social system needed for the Anglo-Saxons during the period of their cultural extension when the former tribal organisation of the society did non run into the stereotypes evoked by military orientation of the cultural dominant at that clip. As a consequence, there emerged a curious category of professional warriors who swore to their Godheads in exchange for lands and gifts seized in the military runs. The male monarchs and baronial people belonged to the governing upper circles, whereas professional soldiers # 8211 ; took an interim niche in the societal hierarchy standing between baronial and common people [ 2 ; 13 ; 15 ; 41 ] . I.V. Shaposhnikova points out that a # 254 ; egn was a personal retainer who was one grade higher in the ranks of freewoman than a # 269 ; eorl. As retainers of the King the position of # 254 ; egn bit by bit rose, until they formed the elective aristocracy of the Kingdom [ 41 ] . The analysis of early Old English written records allows singling out two distinguishable jussive moods throughout the period of the Anglo-Saxon cultural extension. On the one manus it was combativeness, the orientation to the persecution of the war and entry of the individual # 8217 ; s concerns to this imperative and on the other manus at that place existed an archetypical fright to be reduced to the position of societal castaway, a individual deprived of any sort of rights. The cowards were most normally threatened with expatriate. This was the severest penalty for their # 8216 ; black act # 8217 ; to populate a black life in expatriate. In the clip of instability and force the fright of being reduced to the place of an expatriate was so strong that it became one of the predominating motivations in the early Anglo-saxon literature. Whereas warfare for the interest of wealth provided the motor power that moulded cultural stereotypes therefore forming the passionateness of the early Anglo-saxons in the period of their cultural extension. The same warfare motor underlay the ethnics warranting the prevailing stereotypes. This era of great workss and weather heroes is known in literature as the Heroic Age. The common people heroic poem Beowulf is considered to stand for the most revealing grounds of the mentality and pique of the Germanic head [ 7 ; 19 ; 39 ; 41 ] . The heroic poem Beowulf is of about three 1000 lines. This verse form seems to hold originated on the Continent, but when and where are non now to be known. It may hold been carried to England in the signifier of laies by the Anglo-saxons ; or it may be Norse stuff, subsequently brought in by Danish or Norse plagiarists. At any rate it seems to hold taken on its present signifier in England during the 7th and 8th centuries. It relates how the hero Beowulf, coming over the sea to the alleviation of King Hrothgar, delivers him from a monster, Grendel, and so from the retribution of Grendel # 8217 ; s merely less formidable female parent. Returned place in victory, Beowulf much later receives the due wages of his heroism by being made male monarch of his ain folk, and meets his decease while killing a fire-breathing firedrake which has become a flagellum to his people. As he appears in the verse form, Beowulf is an idealised Anglo-Saxon hero, but in beginning he may hold been any one o f several other different things. Possibly he was the old Germanic God Beowa, and his feats originally fables, like some of those in the Greek mythology, of his services to adult male ; he may, for case, foremost have been the Sun, driving off the mists and cold of winter and of the swamps, hostile forces personified in Grendel and his female parent. Or, Beowulf may truly hold been a great human combatant who really killed some particularly formidable wild animals, and whose superhuman strength in the verse form consequences, through the similarity of names, from his being confused with Beowa. This is the more likely because there is in the verse form a little hint of reliable history. Beowulf presents an interesting though really uncomplete image of the life of the upper, warrior, caste among the northern Germanic folks during their ulterior period of brutality on the Continent and in England, a life more extremely developed than that of the Anglo-saxons before their conquering of the island. Outside of Beowulf and a few fragments, the recording of Anglo-Saxon heroic narrative begins with a ninth century entry in The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for the twelvemonth 755 ( really 757 ) . To this can be added a few of the annals devoted to the combats of King Alfred # 8217 ; s boy and grandsons in the 10th century. While non a Chronicle verse form, The Battle of Maldon has a topographic point in this scope, if merely as an divine response to what otherwise the Chronicle ( in the Canterbury and Peterborough manuscripts ) records for 991 as ealdorman Byrthnoth # 8217 ; s decease in conflict at Maldon. Typically, ushers, interlingual renditions and readers presenting pupils to Old English texts highlight three of the narratives from this scope of old ages: the narrative of West Saxon feud are called Cynewulf and Cyneheard ( history entry 755 ) , The Battle of Brunanburh, ( entry for 937 ) , and The Battle of Maldon ( sometime after 991 ) . Traditionally, and here all debuts in Old E nglish readers follow suit, these narrations are seen as enshrining, in some literary intensified manner, heroic values reflecting their antediluvian, Germanic roots. Hence, the literature of the Old English period was non noteworthy for its diverseness of literature genres. The taking topographic point was taken by epic love affairs and spiritual Hagiographas. Obviously, heroes of the old times had no clip to believe of love as in ancient heroic poem love affairs love did non play any of import function. However, the state of affairs well changed in the subsequent period [ 6 ; 8 ; 17 ; 28 ; 54 ] . 1.2 Linguistic state of affairs in Medieval England 1.2.1 Linguistic state of affairs in England after the Norman Conquest It barely can be argued that the Norman Conquest was non merely a great event in British political history but besides the greatest individual event in the history of the English linguistic communication. Its earliest consequence was a drastic alteration in the lingual state of affairs. The Norman Conquerors of England had originally come from Scandinavia. About one hundred and 50 old ages before they seized the vale of the Scine and settled in what was known as Normandy. They were fleetly assimilated by the Gallic and in the eleventh century came to Britain as Gallic talkers and carriers of Gallic civilization. They spoke the Northern idiom of French, which differed in some points from Central, Parisian French. Their lingua in Britain is frequently referred to as # 8216 ; Anglo-French # 8217 ; or # 8216 ; Anglo-Norman # 8217 ; , but may merely every bit good be called French, since we are less concerned here with the differentiation of Gallic idioms than with the uninterrupted Gallic influence upon English, both in the Norman period of history and a long piece after the Anglo-Norman linguistic communication had ceased to be. In the early thirteenth century, as a consequence of lengthy and inefficient wars with France King John Lackland lost the Gallic states, including the dukedom of Normandy. Among other effects the loss of the lands in France cut off the Normans in Britain from France, which speeded up the diminution of the Anglo-French linguistic communication. The most immediate effect of the Norman domination in Britain is to be seen in the broad usage of the Gallic linguistic communication in many domains of life. For about three hundred old ages French was the official linguistic communication of disposal: it was the linguistic communication of the male monarch # 8217 ; s tribunal, the jurisprudence tribunals, the church, the ground forces and the palace. It was besides mundane linguistic communication of many Lords, of the higher clergy and of many townsfolks in the South. The rational life, literature and instruction were in the custodies of French-speaking people ; French, aboard Latin, was the linguistic communication of composing. Teaching was mostly conducted in Gallic and male childs at school were taught to interpret their Latin into Gallic alternatively of English [ 20 ; 28 ; 38 ] . As A. Baugh provinces, England neer stopped being an English-speaking state. The majority of the population held fast to their ain lingua: the lower categories in the towns, and particularly in the country-side, those who lived in the Midlands and up north, continued to talk English and looked upon Gallic as foreign and hostile. Since most of the people were illiterate, the English linguistic communication was about entirely used for spoken communicating. At foremost the two linguistic communications existed side by side without mixing. Then, easy and rapidly, they began to pervade each other. The Norman barons and the Gallic town-dwellers had to pick up English words to do themselves understood while the English began to utilize Gallic words in current address. A good cognition of French would tag a individual of higher standing giving him a certain societal prestigiousness likely many people become bilingual and had a just bid of both linguistic communications [ 20 ] . Undoubtedly, these curious lingual conditions could non stay inactive. The battle between French and English was bound to stop in the complete triumph of English, for English was the living linguistic communication of the full people, while French was restricted to certain societal domains and to composing. Yet the concluding triumph was still a long manner off. In the thirteenth century merely a few stairss were made in that way. The earliest mark of the official acknowledgment of English by the Norman flexible joints was the celebrated Proclamation issued by Henry III in 1258 to the councilors in Parliament. It was written in three linguistic communications: Gallic, Latin and English. The three hundred old ages of the domination of French affected English more than any other foreign influence before or after. The early Gallic adoptions reflect accurately the domains of Norman influence upon English life ; ulterior adoptions can be attributed to the continued cultural, economic and political contacts between the states. The Gallic influence added new characteristics to the regional and societal distinction of the linguistic communication. New words, coming from French, could non be adopted at the same time by all the talkers of English ; they were foremost used in some assortments of the linguistic communication, viz. in the regional idioms of Southern England and in the address if the upper categories, but were unknown in the other assortments of the linguistic communication [ 4 ; 17 ; 18 ; 20 ] . 1.2.2 Dialectal diverseness of the Middle English Apparently, in the Middle English period the linguistic communication differed about from county to county, and noticeable fluctuations are sometimes discernible between different parts of the same county. The characteristics characteristic of a given idiom do non all cover the same district ; some extend into bordering territories or may be characteristic besides of another idiom. Consequently it is instead hard to make up ones mind how many dialectal divisions should be recognized and to tag off with any exactness their several boundaries. In a unsmooth manner, nevertheless, it is customary to separate four chief idioms of Middle English: Northern, East Midland, West Midland, and Southern. Generally speech production, the Northern dialect extends as far south as the Humber ; East Midland and West Midland together cover the country between the Humber and the Thames ; and Southern occupies the territory South of the Thames, together with Gloucestershire and parts of the counties of W orcester and Hereford, therefore taking in the West Saxon and Kentish territories of Old English. Throughout the Middle English period and subsequently, Kentish preserves single characteristics taging it off as a distinguishable assortment of Southern English ( for counties see APPENDIX 1, p.67 ) [ 17 ; 20 ; 24 ] . Middle English Dialects are partially affairs of pronunciation, partially of vocabulary, partially of inflexion. A few illustrations will give some thought of the nature and extent of the differences. The characteristic most easy recognized is the stoping of the plural, present declarative, of verbs. In Old English this signifier ever ended in Thursday with some fluctuation of the predating vowel. In Middle English this stoping was preserved as eth in the Southern idiom. In the Midland territory, nevertheless, it was replaced by nut, likely taken over from the corresponding signifiers of the subjunctive or from preterit-present verbs and the verb to be while in the North it was altered to es, an stoping that makes its visual aspect in Old English times. Therefore we have loves in the North, loven in the Midlands, and loveth in the South. Another reasonably typical signifier is the present participial before the spread of the stoping -ing. In the North we have lovande, in the Midlands lovende, and in the south lovinde. In subsequently Middle English the stoping ing appears in the Midlands and the South, therefore befoging the dialectal differentiation. Dialectal differences are more noticeable between Northern and Southern ; the Midland idiom frequently occupies an intermediate place, be givening toward the one or the other in those territories lying nearer to the next idioms. Thus the characteristic signifiers of the pronoun they in the South were hellos, here ( hire, hure ) , hem, while in the north signifiers with th modern they, their, them early became prevailing. In affairs of pronunciation the Northern and Southern dialects sometimes presented noteworthy differences. Thus OE # 257 ; , was retained in the North, giving such characteristic signifiers as Southern rock and place, beside stane and hame in Scotland today. Initial degree Fahrenheit and s were frequently voiced in the South to v and z. In Southern Middle English we find vor, vrom, voice, vorzo # 254 ; e alternatively of for, from, fox, forsope # 8216 ; forsooth # 8217 ; . This dialectal difference is preserved in Modern English fox and harpy, where the former represents the Northern and Midland pronunciation and the latter the Southern. Similarly ch in the south frequently corresponds to k in the North: bench beside benk, church beside kirk. Such a assortment fortuitously was lessened toward the terminal of the Middle English period by a general acceptance of a Standard written ( and subsequently spoken ) English [ 10 ; 20 ; 45 ] . 1.3 The Middle English principal It is normally accepted that the Middle English period has a much richer certification than is found in Old English. This is partially a consequence of the post-conquest political state of affairs. The freshly centralized monarchy commissioned national and local studies, get downing with the Domesday Book and there is a pronounced addition in the figure of public and private paperss # 8211 ; authorizations, charters, contracts, tax-rolls, and other administrative or judicial documents. However, the early stuff is of limited value to those interested in the lingual history of English because it is mostly written in Latin or Gallic, and the lone relevant informations which can be extracted relate to English and personal names. Most spiritual publication falls into the same class, with Latin keeping its presence throughout the period as the official linguistic communication of the Church [ 7 ; 28 ; 40 ] A major difference from # 1054 ; ld English is the absence of a go oning tradition of historical authorship in the native linguistic communication, as in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle # 8211 ; a map which Latin supplanted, and which was non revived until the fifteenth century. Material in English appears as a drip in the thirteenth century, but within 150 old ages it has become a inundation. In the early period, we can see a great trade of spiritual prose authorship, in the signifier of preachments, piece of lands, lives of the Saints, and the other AIDSs to devotedness and speculation. Sometimes a text was written with a specific readership in head ; the Ancrene Rewle # 8216 ; Anchorites Guide # 8217 ; , for illustration, was compiled by a religious manager for three Ladies who had abandoned the universe to populate as anchoresses. During the fourteenth century, there is a pronounced addition in the figure of translated Hagiographas from Gallic and Latin, and of the texts for learning these linguistic communications. Guild records, proclaims, Proverbss, duologues, fables, and the letters illustrate the diverse scope of new manners and genres. Towards the terminal of the century, the interlingual renditions of the Bible inspired by John Wycliff appear am id considerable contention, and the associated motion produces many manuscripts. Finally, in the 1430es, there is a huge end product in English from the office of the London Chancery Scribe, which strongly influenced the development of the standard written linguistic communication [ 28 ; 44 ; 49 ] . Poetry presents a mystifier. The Anglo-Saxon poetic tradition seemingly dies out in the eleventh century, to re-emerge patchily in the 13th. A drawn-out poetic history of Britain is known as Lagamon # 8217 ; s Brut as we have mentioned above, one of the earliest to last from Middle English, and in the fourteenth century come the of import texts of Piers Plowman and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. What is surprising in that the alliterative Old English manner is still present in all these plants, despite an evident interruption in poetic continuity of at least a hundred old ages. The riddle has generated much treatment. Possibly the alliterative technique was retained though prose: several Middle English prose texts are strongly alliterative, and it is sometimes hard to state from a manuscript which genre ( poesy or prose ) a piece belongs to, because the line divisions are non shown. Possibly the Old English manner survived through the medium of unwritten transmittal. Or possibly i t is merely that most poetic manuscripts have been lost. Middle English poesy was necessarily much influenced by Gallic literary traditions, both in content and manner. One of the earliest illustrations is the thirteenth century verse-contest known as The Owl and the Nightingale. Later works include love affairs in the Gallic manner, secular wordss, bestiaries, scriptural poesy, Christian legends, anthem, supplications and laments [ 28 ; 35 ; 50 ] . The mystical dream vision popular in Italy and France, is good illustrated by the verse form modern editors have called Pearl, in which the author recalls the decease of his two-year- old girl, who so acts as his religious sympathizer. Drama besides begins to do its presence felt, in the signifier of duologues, pageants, and the celebrated rhythms of enigma dramas. Much of the Middle English literature is of unknown writing, but the terminal of the period this state of affairs has changed. Among the prominent names which emerge in the latter portion of the fourteenth century are John Gower, William Langland, and some clip subsequently John Lydgate, Thomas Malory, William Caxton, and the poets who are jointly known as Chaucerians. Rather than a somewhat random aggregation of interesting texts, there is now a major organic structure of literature, in the modern sense. It is this which provides the concluding portion of the span between Middle and Early Modern English. The flourishing of literature, which marks the seconds half of the fourteenth century, apart from its cultural significance, testifies, to the complete reestablishment of English as the linguistic communication of authorship. Some writers wrote in their local idiom from outside London, but most of them used the London idiom or signifiers of the linguistic communication uniting London and provincial traits. Towards the terminal of the century the London idiom had become the chief type of linguistic communication used in literature a kind of literary form to be imitated by provincial writers. The literary text of the late fourteenth century preserved in legion manuscripts, belong to a assortment of genres. Translation continued, but original composings were produced in copiousness ; poesy was more fecund than prose. This period of literary blossoming is known as the # 8220 ; age of Chaucer # 8221 ; ; the greatest name in English literature before William. Shakespeare other authors are referred to as # 8220 ; Chaucer # 8217 ; s coevalss # 8221 ; [ 6 ; 11 ; 7 ; 28 ; 39 ] . 1.3.1 Geoffrey Chaucer and his loaning support of the London Standard # 8217 ; s diffusion Geoffrey Chaucer ( 1340-1400 ) was by far the most outstanding figure of the clip. A hundred old ages subsequently William Caxton, the first English pressman, called him the worshipful male parent and first laminitis and embellisher of flowery fluency in our linguistic communication. In many books on the history of English literature and the history of English Chaucer is described as the laminitis of the literary linguistic communication. His early works more of less imitative of other writers # 8211 ; Latin, Gallic or Italian # 8211 ; though they bear abundant grounds of his accomplishment. He neer wrote in any other linguistic communication than English [ 28 ; 38 ] . However, it is non rather right to see his linguistic communication as a footing for Standard English. Geoffrey Chaucer wrote in a idiom which in the chief coincided with that used in paperss produced in London shortly before his clip and for a long clip after. Although he did non truly make the literary linguistic communication, as a poet of outstanding endowment he made better usage of it than coevalss and put up two forms to be followed in the fifteenth century. His verse forms were copied so many times that over 60 manuscripts of The Canterbury Tales have survived to this twenty-four hours. His books were among the first to be printed, a hundred old ages after their composing. Harmonizing to D. Crystal Chaucer # 8217 ; s literary linguistic communication, based on the assorted ( mostly East Midland ) London idiom is known as classical Middle English. In the 15th and 16th centuries it became the footing of the national literary English linguistic communication. The fifteenth century could bring forth nil worthy to rank with Geoffrey Chaucer. The two outstanding poets, Thomas Hoccleve and John Lydgate, were chiefly transcribers and impersonators. The manner of Chaucer # 8217 ; s replacements is believed to hold drawn further off from mundane address ; it was extremely affected in character, abounding in abstract words and strongly influenced by Latin rhetoric, it is besides termed florid linguistic communication ) [ 28 ] . The importance of Geoffrey Chaucer # 8217 ; s work to any history of the linguistic communication can be affirmed with some strong belief. It is partially affair of a measure # 8211 ; one complete edition prints over 43, 000 of a poesy, every bit good as two of a major prose works # 8211 ; but more important is the comprehensiveness and assortment of his linguistic communication, which ranges from the polished complexness of high flown rhetoric to the natural simpleness of domestic confab. No old writer has shown such a scope, and Chaucer # 8217 ; s composing # 8211 ; in add-on to its virtues # 8211 ; is therefore alone in the grounds it has provided about the province of medieval grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation. Chaucer # 8217 ; s best-known work, The Canterbury Tales, is non of class a usher to the spoken linguistic communication of the clip ; it is a assortment of the written linguistic communication which has been carefully crafted. It uses a regular metrical construction and rime strategy # 8211 ; itself a going from the free beat and the initial rhyme of much earlier poesy. It contains many fluctuations in word order, dictated by the demands of the inflection. There are besides frequent literary allusions and bends of a phrase which make the text hard to follow. What has impressed readers so much is that, despite the restraints, Geoffrey Chaucer has managed to capture vividly the challenging characters of the talkers, and to reflect of course the conversational characteristics of their address. In no other writer, is at that place better support for the position that there is an underlying correspondence between the natural beat of English poesy and that of English mundane conversatio n [ 21 ; 23 ; 26 ; 28 ; 40 ] . 1.3.2 The function of the printing in the formation of the Standard English linguistic communication The creative activity of printing was, doubtless, one of the greatest innovations. It eased the composing procedure as the whole, and it besides had a great trade of influence over linguistic communication. Linguists claim that one of the most of import things publishing brought was a development of a standard linguistic communication of symbols and codifications that we use today [ 27 ; 28 ; 34 ] . Printing which was introduced into England by William Caxton in 1476, helped to increase the spread of cognition and literacy degree among the British public as more and more people had better entree to reading stuffs. Over the centuries, as more English texts were printed, such as novels, lexicons, the Bible and other paperss, the English linguistic communication bit by bit gained popularity and established itself as the national linguistic communication of England. Apart from the coming of printing, political, societal and economic factors besides contributed to the development of English as a national linguistic communication. Through publishing Caxton played a really important and instrumental function in set uping English as the national linguistic communication of England. By following the idiom of London and the South-East as the English for his books, Caxton took a decisive measure frontward in set uping that peculiar assortment as the English linguistic communication. William Caxton as the first pressman in England was extremely responsible for enforcing some signifier of uniformity to the English linguistic communication merely by default. His pick of the idiom of the sou-east Midlands has given us the present signifier of Standard English [ 34 ; 37 ; 46 ] . William Caxton was born in Kent, England and was accepted as an learner in London in 1438. This was non a regular apprenticeship. Harmonizing to N. F. Blake, Robert Large was an of import and influential merchandiser. Caxton had therefore become learner to one of the more of import work forces in the metropolis. He became portion of what was surely a flourishing concern, which would hold provided him with utile contacts and future trading spouses. Seven old ages subsequently, in 1445, he moved to Bruges, Belgium as a mercer to take portion in the trade there of the Merchant Adventurers of whom the London Mercers where outstanding members. Many Englishmans were attracted to City of bridgess due to its production of all right fabrics, which besides made other fabrics of import. The move to Bruges was of import in the strategy of Caxton # 8217 ; s switch to publishing. As the old ages progressed, so did his accomplishments as a mercer and his calling. He finally became an of import fig ure among his co-workers, which would once more profit him in the hereafter with printing. In this period Caxton learned how to finance undertakings and he acquired considerable wealth. Both were necessary for the successful completion of his venture into publishing [ 23 ] . With the problem that ensued with the authorities, William Caxton began to look elsewhere for ware to sell. English mercers where non allowed to sell all right fabrics for a piece and it is assumed that Caxton supplemented his gross revenues with manuscripts. He worked closely with many of the baronial who were the lone 1s that could afford such luxuries as reading stuffs. Through his handling of manuscripts and even books, he gained an involvement in literature [ 23 ; 28 ] . His first attempt with literature was non in printing, but in interpreting. He knew adequate Dutch, Flemish, French and Latin to interpret books into English. This was unheard of earlier ; English was non a scholarly linguistic communication like French or Latin, but one used merely by the common common people. The first book to be translated by him was the Latin book History of Troy ( 1475 ) , that had been translated into French. However, he had such a hard clip in interpreting that he would about given up on the impression. He had begun interpreting in 1469 and so given it up. The ground, harmonizing to Caxton, was his incompetency as a transcriber and his deficiency of bid of English. It is non a converting one, for in the Centre of the European book trade he could likely hold found person else to make it for him if he had merely wanted a interlingual rendition. He obviously wanted to do the interlingual rendition himself and was prevented from finishing it for two old ages [ 23 ; 26 ] . Many of the transcribers in Caxton # 8217 ; s twenty-four hours stated that they attempted to remain as near to the original text as possible, even though this was more of a merchandising point for their work than world. Caxton made the same claims, likely out of duty. How would it look if everyone were making it except him? His figure one precedence was non truth of interlingual rendition, but guaranting that there was ever something on the imperativeness. Because he owned it, it was up to him how many books he had available for printing and if nil was printing, he wasn # 8217 ; t doing money. To maintain the imperativenesss working may hold appeared more of import than a finely shaped phrase [ 23 ] . In his shutting comments on the topic of Caxton as a transcriber, Henry Blake says, that in general he can barely be distinguished from the host of transcribers who crowd the fifteenth century scene, except possibly in the sheer measure of his end product. Of the 106 plants printed by or attributed to Caxton, he translated at least 25. It is barely surprising that he did non ever have clip to smooth his version for the imperativeness [ 23 ] . Caxton finally resigned as the Governor within the Merchant Adventurers, a station he held for several old ages, so he could go to Cologne, Germany. He lived at that place from 1471 # 8211 ; 1472, a sum of 18 months. It is assumed that his purpose in going at that place was to larn how to be a pressman so he could publish his ain book, The Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye, translated from French. Cologne, with a imperativeness dating from about 1465, was the town nearest to Bruges which had a imperativeness at that clip, and Caxton had small pick where to travel [ 18 ] . It had become the capital of the Low Countries because of its university, which attracted a batch of bookmans and pupils ; an of import archbishopric ; and strong trade, particularly with English shopkeepers. An interesting facet to the printing universe is the fact that there was an immediate division of labour within the profession. There were the skilled craftsmen who really did the work on the imperativenesss and so there were the shopkeepers that already had connexions to sell the books who were considered the publishing houses and enterprisers. Paper was the most expensive investing that had to be available upfront, before any books were sold, and it was the shopkeepers who had the money readily available for buying. Surely Caxton learned how to publish, for it was his duty to learn his helpers one time he returned to Bruges and set up store as a pressman. Blake explains it therefore: # 8220 ; Normally he would non hold interfered in the existent printing operations, and it is non right to believe of Caxton as a pressman. He was the publishing house and enterpriser. He provided the capital, chose the books and distributed them, go forthing the printing to others # 8221 ; [ 23:59 ] . Once he returned to Bruges, Caxton used the backing of Margaret of Burgundy to assist him print his book. The first book he printed, and the first book to look in English, was his ain interlingual rendition of the History of Troy in 1475. Before returning to England to put up a printing imperativeness at that place, Caxton printed six or seven other volumes while in Bruges. Two were in English, the one already mentioned and Game of Chess, and four were in French. The 7th booklet is attributed to him but has non been confirmed to be his work [ 18 ] . Caxton eventually returned to England to put up his ain printing imperativeness in 1476. Since Caxton settled in Westminster alternatively of his hometown of London, it was supposed that the dealingss between the Scribes and the pressmans were at odds. It was thought that possibly the Scribes felt threatened by this new device that would finally outdate them, stealing all of their work. However, this has neer been proved and, in fact, the re are several histories of pressmans working closely with the Scribes. As an illustration, the first known point to be printed in England is an indulgence which must be dated prior to 13 December 1476, since that day of the month has been entered by manus in the lasting transcript. It is printed in Caxton # 8217 ; s type 2 with six letters in his type 3 [ 23 ; 26 ] . Obviously he was working with the archimandrites, who were besides scribes, in the production of indulgences. Caxton could non hold of all time hoped to hold the full publication market of England in his custodies for the remainder of his life. And consequently, challengers began to get, puting up their ain print stores. The first few were no existent menace to the well-known Caxton ; nevertheless, by 1480, a existent rival entered the phase. John Lettou, a indigen of Lithuania, moved into London and really had better books than Caxton. It at one time became apparent that the new pressman had learnt his art under a much better maestro than Caxton had [ 37 ] . This became a wake-up call to William Caxton, allowing him know that he needed to get down repairing some of the jobs with his ain printing so as non to lose the concern wholly and this he did. At the clip of Caxton # 8217 ; s interlingual renditions, English was a linguistic communication that was still new. It had begun to alter from the Old English to a more modern English but different ways of spelling and pronunciation abounded. This was bound to do any pressman go insane. It is said the English slang was merely merely get downing to develop a prose signifier, and Caxton coped with the job of meager vocabulary and broad fluctuations in the spelling of even the simplest English words.As an illustration, the word small can be spelled several ways in Caxton # 8217 ; s texts. Two discrepancies are litil and lytel. At this really period, the English linguistic communication was still go throughing from its medieval pronunciation into that province with which we are familiar today, and it was exactly so that the imperativeness began to crystallise the writing system of a linguistic communication still in flux. Gradually, the spelling tended to go fixed, while the pronuncia tion continued to germinate [ 23 ; 26 ] . Caxton knew of these troubles personally and recognized the demand for a redress. Through his attempts as a pressman and publishing house, things began to slowly alteration. [ 26 ] . An interesting side note about this event in English history is the current spellings and pronunciations found in the linguistic communication today. Because the written word began to take a more lasting signifier while the spoken word had non, many discrepancies developed on how to articulate the same word. For this ground, we see many differences in the pronunciation of British English and American English. Even within England there are idioms with differences in word pronunciation. This all developed due to the hardening of the written and spoken linguistic communication at different times [ 26 ; 37 ] . The standardisation of the English linguistic communication or any linguistic communication is an issue which linguists ever have to cope with. Printing had brought into focal point jobs sing the fluctuations in the English linguistic communication, which Caxton had observed, such as: # 183 ; Should he utilize foreign words in his interlingual renditions or replace them with native English words? # 183 ; Which assortment of English should he follow, given the being of major regional differences? # 183 ; Which literary manner should be used as a theoretical account? # 183 ; How the linguistic communication should be spelled and punctuated, given the scribal fluctuations of the old centuries? # 183 ; In printing native authors, should he alter their linguistic communication to do it is more widely understood? However, publishing provides a manner to cut down these fluctuations in the linguistic communication. As Caxton himself showed, publishing houses would put their ain system of spelling and slightly codify the linguistic communication [ 28 ] . Hence, the debut of the printing by William Caxton gave an unprecedented drift to the formation of a standard linguistic communication and the survey of its belongingss. Apart from its function in furthering norms of spelling and punctuation, the handiness of publishing provided more chances for people to compose, and gave their plants much wider circulation. As a consequence, more texts of the period have survived. Within the undermentioned 150 old ages, it is estimated that about 20,000 books appeared. The narrative of English therefore becomes more definite in the sixteenth century, with more grounds available about the manner the linguistic communication was developing, both in the texts themselves, and in a turning figure of observations covering with such countries as grammar, vocabulary, composing system, and manner. In that century, scholars earnestly got down to speaking about their linguistic communication [ 20 ; 23 ; 26 ; 28 ; 34 ; 38 ; 45 ] . 1.3.3 Principal Middle English written records as a contemplation of ongoing alterations in Standard The literature written in England during the Middle English period reflects reasonably accurately the alterations lucks of English. During the clip that French was the linguistic communication best understood by the upper categories, the books they read or listened to were Gallic. The wagess of backing were seldom to be expected by those who wrote in English ; with them we must look for other inducements for composing. Such inducements were most frequently found among members of the spiritual organic structure, interested in advancing right life and in the attention of psyches. Consequently, the literature in English that has come down to us from this period is about entirely spiritual or admonitory. The Ancrene Riwle, the Ormulum, a series of paraphrasiss and readings of Gospel transitions, and a group of saint # 8217 ; s lives and short homiletic pieces demoing the endurance of an Old English literary tradition in the south-west are the chief plant of this category. The two outstanding exclusions are Lagamon # 8217 ; s Brut based mostly on Wace, and the amazing argument between The Owl and the Nightingale, a long verse form in which two birds exchange recriminations in the liveliest manner. There was surely a organic structure of popular literature that circulated orally among the people, merely as at a ulterior day of the month in the English and Scottish popular laies did, but such literature has left little hints in this period. The hundred old ages from 1150 to 1250 have been rightly called the Period of spiritual Record [ 28 ] . The separation of the English aristocracy from France by about 1250 and the spread of English among the upper category are manifested in the following hundred old ages of English literature. Types of polite literature that had hitherto appeared in Gallic now appear in English. Of these types most popular was the love affair. Merely one English love affair exists from an earlier day of the month than 1250, but from this clip interlingual renditions and versions from Gallic Begin to be made, and in the class of the fourteenth century their figure become rather big. The period of 1250 # 8211 ; 1350 is a period of Religious and secular literature of the English linguistic communication. The general acceptance of English by all categories, which had taken topographic point by the latter half of the fourteenth century, gave rise to a organic structure of literature that represents the high point in English literary accomplishment in the Middle Ages. The fifteenth century is sometimes known as the Imitative Period because so much of the poesy so written was written in emulation of Chaucer. It is besides spoken of as a Transition Period, because it covers a big partof theinterval between the age of Chaucer and the age of Shakespeare. That period has been unjustly neglected. Stephen Hawes is notnegligible, though true overshadowed by some of his great predecessors, and at the terminal of the century at that place appeared the prose of Thomas Malory and William Caxton. In the north the Scots Chaucerians, peculiarly Robert Henryson, William Dunbar, Gawin Douglas and David Lindsay, produced important work. These writers carry on the tradition of English as a literary medium into the Renaissance. Thus, Middle English literature follows and throws interesting visible radiation on the lucks of the English linguistic communication [ 20 ; 24 ; 28 ; 54 ] . The runic authorship system is a set of related alphabets utilizing letters known as runic letters to compose assorted Germanic linguistic communications before the acceptance of the Latin alphabet and for specialised intents thenceforth. The Norse discrepancies are besides known as futhark. The literature of the Old English period was presented by two chief tenors epic and religious.Among the most of import plants of this period was the verse form Beowulf, which has achieved national heroic poem position in England. The Anglo-saxon Chronicle otherwise proves important to the survey of the epoch, continuing a chronology of early English history, while the verse form C # 230 ; dmon # 8217 ; s Hymn from the seventh century survives as the oldest extant work of literature in English. The effects of the Norman Conquest added new characteristics to the regional and societal distinction of the linguistic communication. New words, coming from French, could non be adopted at the same time by all the talkers of English ; they were foremost used in some assortments of the linguistic communication. The dialectal place of Middle English is fundamentally a continuance of that of Old English. The most of import excess lingual fact for the development of the Middle English idioms is that the capital of the state was moved from Winchester ( in the Old English period ) to London by William the Conqueror in his effort to decrease the political influence of native English. Geoffrey Chaucer # 8217 ; s literary standing had greatly added to the prestigiousness associated with written linguistic communication in the London idiom. The debut of the printing by William Caxton was one of the most important factors of the Standard English diffusion. This resulted in the spread of a individual norm over most of the state, so much that during the fifteenth century it becomes progressively hard to find on internal lingual evidences the idioms in which a actual work is written. Chapter 2. CHANGING CONDITIONS IN THE PERIOD OF STANDARDISATION OF THE LANGUAGE 2.1 The beginnings of Standard English The assortment which we now call Standard English is a consequence of combination of influences, the most of import of which do non emerge until the Middle English period. There is no connexion between West Saxon, the written criterion of old English, and the modern Standard. The political bosom of the state moved from Winchester to London after the Conquest, and bulk of the lingual tendencies progressively relate to the development of the capital as a societal, political and commercial Centre. A written standard linguistic communication began to emerge during the fifteenth century and, following the elaborate survey of the dialectal features of the period it is now possible to insulate several factors which contributed to its individuality. A literally standardised linguistic communication appeared in the last portion of the fourteenth century, based on idioms of the Central Midland states, particularly Northunptonshire, Hutingtonshire, and Bedfordshire. This is chiefly found in the big figure of John Wycliffe # 8217 ; s manuscripts which have survived including discourses, piece of lands, dramas, verse forms, and the different versions of the Wycliffe Bible, every bit good as several secular plants. The Lollards spread this assortment widely, even into South-West England, therefore increasing its position as criterion. In the long term it was unable to vie with measure of stuff emanating from the capital ; but its cardinal Midland beginnings are however notable ( for the map of Middle English counties, see Appendix 1, p. 67 ) [ 27 ; 28 ; 53 ] . 2.1.1 The Rise of Standard English Out of the assortment of local idioms at that place emerged toward the terminal of the fourteenth century a written linguistic communication that in the class of the fifteenth century won general acknowledgment and has since become the accepted criterion in both address and authorship. The portion of England that contributed most to the formation of this criterion was the East Midland territory, and it was the East Midland type of English that became its footing, peculiarly the idiom of the city, London. Several causes contributed to the attainment of this consequence. In the first topographic point, as a Midland dialect the English of this part occupied a in-between place between the utmost divergencies of the North and South. It was less conservative than the Southern idiom, less extremist than the Northern. In its sounds and inflexions it represents a sort of via media, sharing some of the features of both its neighbours [ 20 ] . In the 2nd topographic point, the East Midland territory was the largest and most thickly settled of the major idiom countries. The land was more valuable than the cragged state to the North and West, and in an agricultural age this advantage was reflected in both the figure and the prosperity of the dwellers. If we leave Lincolnshire, Norfolk and Suffolk out of history we are to all visual aspects go forthing out of history non much less than a one-fourth of the whole state. No uncertainty all illations drawn from mediaeval statistics are extremely unstable ; but, unless a good many figures have conspired to lead on us, Lincolnshire, Norfolk and Suffolk were at the clip of the Conquest and for three centuries afterwards immensely richer and more thickly settled than any piece of land of equal country in the West. Merely the southern counties possessed natural advantages at all comparable, and they were much smaller. The prominence of Middlesex, Oxford, Norfolk, and the East Midlands by and large in political personal businesss all through the ulterior Middle Ages is but another grounds of the importance of the territory and of the extent to which its influence was likely to be felt [ 20 ; 27 ; 53 ] . A 3rd factor, more hard to measure, was the presence of the universities, Oxford and Cambridge, in this part. In the fourteenth century the monasteries were playing a less of import function in the airing of larning than they had one time played, while the two universities had developed into of import rational centres. So far as Cambridge is concerned any influence that it had would be exerted in support of the East Midland idiom. That of Oxford is less certain because Oxfordshire is on the boundary line between Midland and Southern and its idiom shows certain characteristic Southern characteristics. Furthermore, we can no longer impute to Wycliffe an of import portion in the constitution of a written criterion. Though he spent much of his life at Oxford, he seems non to hold conformed to the full to the Oxford idiom. Purportedly, the idiom

Logistics Behind US Federal Regulations

Logistics Behind US Federal Regulations Federal regulations are specific details directives or requirements with the force of law enacted by the federal agencies necessary to enforce the legislative acts passed by Congress. The Clean Air Act, the Food and Drug Act, the Civil Rights Act are all examples of landmark legislation requiring months, even years of highly publicized planning, debate, compromise and reconciliation in Congress. Yet the work of creating the vast and ever-growing volumes of federal regulations, the real laws behind the acts, happens largely unnoticed in the offices of the government agencies rather than the halls of Congress. Regulatory Federal Agencies Agencies, like the FDA, EPA, OSHA and at least 50 others, are called regulatory agencies  because they are empowered to create and enforce rules regulations that carry the full force of law. Individuals, businesses, and private and public organizations can be fined, sanctioned, forced to close, and even jailed for violating federal regulations. The oldest Federal regulatory agency still in existence is the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency, established in 1863 to charter and regulate national banks. The  Federal Rulemaking Process The process of creating and enacting federal regulations is generally referred to as the rulemaking process. First, Congress passes a law designed to address a social or economic need or problem. The appropriate regulatory agency then creates regulations necessary to implement the law. For example, the Food and Drug Administration creates its regulations under the authority of the Food Drug and Cosmetics Act, the Controlled Substances Act and several other acts created by Congress over the years. Acts such as these are known as enabling legislation, because the literally enable the regulatory agencies to create the regulations required to administer enforce them. The Rules of Rulemaking Regulatory agencies create regulations according to rules and processes defined by another law known as the Administration Procedure Act (APA). The APA defines a rule or regulation as... [T]he whole or a part of an agency statement of general or particular applicability and future effect designed to implement, interpret, or prescribe law or policy or describing the organization, procedure, or practice requirements of an agency. The APA defines rulemaking as†¦ [A]gency action which regulates the future conduct of either groups of persons or a single person; it is essentially legislative in nature, not only because it operates in the future but because it is primarily concerned with policy considerations. Under the APA, the agencies must publish all proposed new regulations in the Federal Register at least 30 days before they take effect, and they must provide a way for interested parties to comment, offer amendments, or object to the regulation. Some regulations require only publication and an opportunity for comments to become effective. Others require publication and one or more formal public hearings. The enabling legislation states which process is to be used in creating the regulations. Regulations requiring hearings can take several months to become final. New regulations or amendments to existing regulations are known as proposed rules. Notices of public hearings or requests for comments on proposed rules are published in the Federal Register, on the Web sites of the regulatory agencies and in many newspapers and other publications. The notices will include information on how to submit comments, or participate in public hearings on the proposed rule. Once a regulation takes effect, it becomes a final rule and is printed in the Federal Register, the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) and usually posted on the Web site of the regulatory agency. Type and Number of Federal Regulations In the Office of Management and Budgets (OMB) 2000 Report to Congress on the Costs and Benefits of Federal Regulations, OMB defines the three widely recognized categories of federal regulations as: social, economic, and process. Social regulations: seek  to benefit the public interest in one of two ways. It prohibits firms from producing products in certain ways or with certain characteristics that are harmful to public interests such as health, safety, and the environment. Examples would be OSHA’s rule prohibiting firms from allowing in the workplace more than one part per million of Benzene averaged over an eight hour day and the Department of Energy’s rule prohibiting firms from selling refrigerators that do not meet certain energy efficiency standards. Social regulation also requires firms to produce products in certain ways or with certain characteristics that are beneficial to these public interests. Examples are the Food and Drug Administration’s requirement that firms selling food products must provide a label with specified information on its package and Department of Transportation’s requirement that automobiles be equipped with approved airbags. Economic regulations: prohibit  firms from charging prices or entering or exiting lines of business that might cause harm to the economic interests of other firms or economic groups. Such regulations usually apply on an industry-wide basis (for example, agriculture, trucking, or communications). In the United States, this type of regulation at the federal level has often been administered by independent commissions such as the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) or the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC). This type of regulation can cause economic loss from the higher prices and inefficient operations that often occur when the competition is restrained. Process Regulations: impose administrative or paperwork requirements such as income tax, immigration, social security, food stamps, or procurement forms. Most costs to businesses resulting from program administration, government procurement, and tax compliance efforts. Social and economic regulation may also impose paperwork costs due to disclosure requirements and enforcement needs. These costs generally appear in the cost for such rules. Procurement costs generally show up in the federal budget as greater fiscal expenditures. How Many Federal Regulations are There? According to the Office of the Federal Register, in 1998, the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), the official listing of all regulations in effect, contained a total of 134,723 pages in 201 volumes that claimed 19 feet of shelf space. In 1970, the CFR totaled only 54,834 pages. The General Accountability Office (GAO) reports that in the four fiscal years from 1996 to 1999, a total of 15,286 new federal regulations went into effect. Of these, 222 were classified as major rules, each one having an annual effect on the economy of at least $100 million. While they call the process rulemaking, the regulatory agencies create and enforce rules that are truly laws, many with the potential to profoundly affect the lives and livelihoods of millions of Americans. What controls and oversight are placed on the regulatory agencies in creating federal regulations? Control of the Regulatory Process Federal regulations created by the regulatory agencies are subject to review by both the president and Congress under Executive Order 12866 and the Congressional Review Act. The Congressional Review Act (CRA) represents an attempt by Congress to re-establish some control over the agency rulemaking process. Executive Order 12866, issued on Sept. 30, 1993, by President Clinton, stipulates steps that must be followed by executive branch agencies before regulations issued by them are allowed to take effect. For all regulations, a detailed cost-benefit analysis must be performed. Regulations with an estimated cost of $100 million or more are designated major rules, and require completion of a more detailed Regulatory Impact Analysis (RIA). The RIA must justify the cost of the new regulation and must be approved by the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) before the regulation can take effect. Executive Order 12866 also requires all regulatory agencies to prepare and submit to OMB annual plans to establish regulatory priorities and improve coordination of the Administrations regulatory program. While some requirements of Executive Order 12866 apply only to executive branch agencies, all federal regulatory agencies fall under the controls of the Congressional Review Act. The Congressional Review Act (CRA) allows Congress 60 in-session days to review and possibly reject new federal regulations issued by the regulatory agencies. Under the CRA, the regulatory agencies are required to submit all new rules the leaders of both the House and Senate. In addition, the General Accounting Office (GAO) provides to those congressional committees related to the new regulation, a detailed report on each new major rule.

Gay marriage Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 2

Gay marriage - Research Paper Example Nonetheless, it is undeniable that gay marriages have become a part of the modern society and their prohibition, there is still people practicing homosexuality and the definition of marriage seemingly comprises people instead of man and woman (John, et al 2). In a worrying trend, more people are jumping into the bandwagon and acquiescing to same sex marriage mostly due to the misinformed notion that by outlawing gay marriage governments effectively show they can take away people’s rights. However, it is worth noting that continued embracing of these unions both legally and eclectically is in the long term bound to have the effect of undermining the value of marriage. This paper will present and defend the arguments against gay marriage and criticize some of the arguments for it in an attempt to contest the validity of same sex unions. The bible presents the basis of reasoning in the Judaic and Christian respect; consider the story of creation, initially God created Adam a sexually undifferentiated entity then from him produced two differentiated entities man and woman. Considering this was the only resulting different between Eve and Adam, then it goes without saying that to reconstitute the sexual whole, erotic intimacy achieved in the process of heterosexual coitus will be required. In this respect, homosexual intimacy cannot constitute marriage since it will be devoid of the sexual compatibility and complementariness that would characteristic of opposite sex unions; thus, is in contradiction to the original order of nature (Robert). This biblical scripture further condemn the actions in a more overt way both in the new and Old Testament, in Corinthians Paul condemns â€Å"men who lie with males† and classifies them among other diabolic individual unlikely to have a stake in the heavenly empire. Islamic faith also condemns the practice and evidence of this can be seen

Persuasive memo on Internet Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Persuasive memo on Internet - Essay Example A modified and lenient regulation on Internet use can prove to be useful in more than one ways for our organization. First of all, it will provide the employees with the much needed incentive to persevere even more for the accomplishment of the company’s goals. Secondly, it is often observed that employees tend to retard during breaks and lunch periods; however, if such a regulation is passed, then it will act as a catalyst in energizing employees and boosting their motivation levels during breaks. The permission to interact with their friends and family members on social networking websites, surf news or watch highlights of a soccer game, can all prove to be key drivers in bringing out enhanced performance from the employees. Moreover, through internet use in breaks, employees can share information with each other, which would develop a knowledge-based culture in our organization. Consequently, a regulation to allow internet use during breaks and lunch periods would ultimately benefit both the employees and the

The Tate Modern: History and Development

The Tate Modern: History and Development Institutions in the Arts and Media: Galleries and the rise of the art market Focusing on the Tate Modern. (UK) The dazzling success of the Tate Modern has threatened to overwhelm Tate Britain(formerly the Tate Gallery.) But, says Tate Director Nicholas Serota, Brit art was thriving long before Hirst et al renewedLondons international status. (Taken from The Timeout Guide to Tate Britain, Nov 2001.) In his Foreword to Tate Modern: The Handbook, Director Lars Nittve writes: every museum is unique; Tate Moderns individuality lies not just in its collection or its locationbut also in its architecture. Indeed, what was once known as the Tate Gallery has undergone a major overhaul. There are now four branches: two in London (one at Millbank; the Tate Modern at Bankside; one in St. Ives; and one in Liverpool). According to Nittve, the Tate at Millbank used to be the big mother ship, where everything sat-curators, administration, conservation, etc. Now were moving to something more like a federation. This paper will take a close look at the Tate Modern, first exploring its singular history and its architectural uniqueness. We will then focus on the wealth and variety of its collection, which is divided into four basic themes: landscape, still life, history painting, and nudes. Finally, we will examine the Tate Modern in the the larger framework of contemporary art and media, taking note of its influence on the UK art market, and measuring its status in the international art world. History of the Tate Modern Nicholas Serota was appointed Director of the Tate at Millbank in 1988, and shortly after this decided to embark on a number of modifications. In an attempt to re-establish the original architectural integrity of the Millbank building, Serota decided to remove all signs of artifice. He decided to obliterate the false ceilings and temporary walls. He also decided upon a major reorganisation of the collection. Welcome as these changes may have been, they also brought to light the fact that there was simply not enough space to implement all these changes if the museum were to remain in its current setting. This eventually led to the decision to expand, a move which has had far-reaching effects in the art world, not just in the UK but internationally. The search for a new site ultimately led to the old Bankside Power Station. Originally designed and built after the Second World War, the Bankside Power Station was the work of Giles Gilbert Scott, a respected British architect. Scott also designed the [now defunct] power station at Battersea, as well as the Liverpool Anglican Cathedral. He is best known, however, as the designer of the once ubiquitous telephone box (Craig-Martin, 14). Michael Craig-Martin, one of the trustees assigned to investigating potential sites for the new Tate, notes that: The Bankside building was notable for its plain red brick exterior and the powerful symmetry of its horizontal mass bisected at the centre by a single tall, square chimney. The building was articulated on three sides by a series of immense, well-detailed windows. The only decoration came from the brickwork crenellation along the buildings edging, cleverly mitigating its great bulk (Craig-Martin, 14-15). The discovery of the Bankside Power Station opened up new vistas for the trustees of the new Tate. First of all was the issue of size: the Bankside Power Station was larger than any of them had imagined. Adjusting their expectations to include such a vast space opened up an entirely new perspective as well as a world of possibility. Second, of all, building yet they had assumed that they would be commissioning abuilding yet  here was the power station, basically intact. They now had to consider the possibility that there would be no need to raze the existing building and start over what if they were to work with the existing structure, and make changes as needed? This, clearly, would be a break from the way things were traditionally done. Thus, after visiting the Bankside Power Station, the trustees vision of what the new gallery could be began to change, and their preconceived notions were replaced by exciting new concepts (Craig-Martin, 15). The existence of so many positive factors convinced the trustees that the Bankside site was the best choice as the new site of the home of modern art. Not only were the possibilities were inviting; also to be considered was the location, which was ideal; the possibility of development; and the interest and support of the local government. Location was certainly a major consideration; this London location boasted first-rate transport facilities, including the new tube station at Southwark. In addition, there was the possibility of a river bank connection with the Millbank gallery(Craig-Martin, 15). And the local Southwark Council wasted no time in acknowledging the potential impact this could have on the local community, an area much in need of a financial and industrial boost: The local council, Southwark, recognising the potential impact of the Tate project on development and employment in this largely run-down area, enthusiastically supported it from the start (Craig-Martin, 15). Architectural Design Relocation to the Bankside site meant opened up a wealth of opportunity for the Tate. Forstarters, the vast size of the building meant that the Tate would be able tomore than double its capacity for showing its collection as well as housing major large-scale temporary exhibitions (Craig-Martin, 15). Beyond this, the possibilities seemed even more exciting: even after expansion, there would be a vast expanse of untouched space, leaving the possibilities for continued growth and capacity for even greater acquisitions wide open. But questions of how to approach and re-design this space still had to be sorted out. DirectorNicholas Serota enlisted the assistance of Trustee Michael Craig-Martin andsculptor Bill Woodrow to visit some of the newer museums of contemporary art onthe Continent, and to consider them critically from our point of view asartists (Craig-Martin, 17). In this way, Serota helped to best utilize the newspace, with an eye on art, rather than architecture. After visiting a number of modern museums, Martin and Woodrow found that for the most part,modern museums better served the interests of architects and architecture than those of art and artists. Clearly the interests of art were not the primary consideration of those chosen to design the space that would best showcase it. Many architects clearly considered designing a museum to be a prime opportunity for high-profile signature work. On the other hand few architects seemed truly to understand or be interested in the needs of art (Craig-Martin, 17). They reported these findings to Serota and the other trustees, with the ultimate result that there was a shift in the thinking behind the architectural approach. Now, the  central concern of the design of the new building would be to address the needs of art through the quality of the galleries and the range ofopportunities, both sympathetic and challenging, for showing art. While seeking the best possible architectural solution, we determined that the project would be art led not architecture led (Craig-Martin, 17). The decision ofthe trustees was not a popular one in many circles. Architects in particular felt deprived, seeing the decision only in light of their own potential growth or lack thereof: Some, seeing this as the betrayal of a unique architectural opportunity for London, interpreted it as the result of a loss of institutional nerve (Craig-Martin, 17). Ultimately, Herzog de Meuron were selected to be the architects. They were the only ones whose design managed to keep the building intact without making major changes to its basic structure, to appreciate the beauty and value already inherent in the existing structure: Herzog de Meurons was the only proposal that completely accepted the existing building its form, its materials and its industrial characteristics and saw the solution to be the transformation of the building itself into an art gallery (Craig-Martin, 17). Indeed, as pointed out by Insight Guides: Tate Modern has captured the publics imagination in a quite unprecedented way, both for its displays and its building, which establishes a magnificent presence on the South Bank (194). The Collection Insight Guides states that the arrangement of the collection makes it both more accessible to, and more popular with, the general public (194). Instead of achronology, the work is organized by a four separate (though admittedly overlapping) themes. The displays replace a single historical account with many different stories of artistic activity and suggest their relationship to the wider social and cultural history of the 20th and early 21stcentury (Insight Guides 194). The four themes are, basically: landscape, still life, history painting, and nudes. Within each of these broad themes it is possible to explore a rich syntax of intention and strategy, (Blazwick Morris, 35). Landscape/Matter/Environment When one thinks of landscapes, a variety of scenes may come to mind: waves crashing on a rocky beach; a horizon of dark, menacing clouds; skyscrapers silhouetted against a sunset. As Blazwick Morris point out, the genre of landscape is primarily understood as a representation of a natural or urban scene, which might be topographic, metaphoric or sublime (35). At the Tate Modern, however, the genre of landscape has been reconceived to include the zone of the imaginary, uncanny dreamscapes, symbolic visualisations of anxiety and desire (Blazwick Morris, 35). As Jennifer Mundy points out, landscape is an ambiguous term and can have several overlapping meanings: much of its resonance derives from the often uncertain boundary between nature and culture, the objective and the subjective (42). Thus a landscape may be a faithful rendering of the physical world, such as the dreamy middle-class countrysides of Impressionism. Or it may be symbolic rendering of an interior landscape, such as the more obscure works of the Surrealists. The Tate Moderns Landscape collection tries to reflect the range and diversity of this genre, while also addressing the complex threat of modern technology. As Mundy notes,today the threat posed to the environment by modern technology and the growth of the human population has made the natural landscape a topical, even urgent, subject for art (50). StillLife/Object/Real Life Paul Moorhouse posits that among the many radical developments in the visual arts during the last hundred years, one of the most significant has been the extraordinary growth and transformation of the genre known as still life (60). By the period of Cubism, still life no longer meant an apple on a plate, but rather the complexity of the relationship of the objects to each other and to the viewer: The inertness of such objects as a glass, a bottle, a pipe or a newspaper provided a perfect vehicle for evoking the complex phenomenological relationships between such artefacts, the surrounding space and the viewer perceiving them (62). The Tate Moderns collection is a reflection of the evolution of the form referred to as still life, and which today defies definition. According to Moorhouse, this fusion of the actual and the symbolic has created the conditions for a remarkable vitality and diversity in contemporary art (68), a vitality and diversity reflected in the Tate Moderns ever-changing representations of the genre. History/Memory/Society The concept of history/memory/society is wide-ranging and ambitious, perhaps intentionally so. Public morality, politics, ideology, idealism and suffering among other themes still preoccupy artists today comments Jeremy Lewison (88). The Tate Modern collection attempts to represent these themes as they are expressed in modernity, while reflecting the continuum in which they necessarily exist. Clearly this is an ambitious task, considering the multitude of methods used to express and relate these concepts across the ages. The study of history has descended to the micro level, posits Lewison, adding that it has been, in a sense, democratised. History is no longer solely the provenance of leaders and heroes; it is rather, in the hands of the common individual. The artists of today have followed a similar course, Lewison suggests, and, by employing the same strategies, by opening themselves to techniques and concepts derived from the human and social sciences, artists today address issues relevant to contemporary life (88). Nude/Action/Body Among the most ancient man-made objects recognisable as belonging to the category that we callart are small naked human figures carved from stone or ivory posits SimonWilson (96). Clearly, as humans we are obsessed with representations of the body and this has been reflected throughout history. The final decades of the twentieth century have seen remarkable changes in the concept of the human body. Significant advances in technology, combined with the lengthened lifespans of our population, have spurred a re-thinking of what the body is indeed, at times it has seemed to become objectified. These changes are of course reflected in art. As Wilson points out, during this time period artists began to use their own body as the expressive medium, initially creating necessarily ephemeral works in the form of what became known as Performance art (104). This, in conjunction with use of various media such as film, video, and still photography, is all part of the Tate Moderns programme in accurately capturing and representing this genre. The Tate Modern and the International Art World The success of the Tate Modern may have initially seemed to eclipse the Tate Britain however, a response like this surely had to have been expected. The selection of Giles Gilbert Scotts Bankside Power Station as its new home was itself a newsworthy event. The subsequent choice of Herzog de Meuron as architects caused considerable buzz in the art world and the country at large. Therefore it issmall wonder that when it finally opened its doors, the world was indeed dazzled by the Tate Modern. Stephen Deuchar, Director of the Tate Britain, writes in the Foreward to Humphreys book: the creation in 2000 of Tate Modern and Tate Britain as distinctive entities with the Tate organisation, were initial steps towards the renaissance of Millbank. Now, with many new galleries for displays and exhibitions, and with a future programme setting our collections withina plethora of new contexts, national and international, our role here as the worlds centre for the study and enjoyment of British art may emergewith fresh clarity There is, however, no doubt that the Tate Modern will play an influential role in the art world. It is unique in conception, as noted earlier, because it was carefully designed to meet the needs of the artist, as opposed to those of the architect. As Craig-Martin pointed out, while seeking the best possible architectural solution, we determined that the project would be art led not architecture led(17). In addition, there is the simple, yet vitally important issue of size and space alone. The discovery of the Bankside Power Station opened up new vistas for the trustees of the new Tate. Bankside Power Station was larger than any of them had imagined, and the process of adjusting their expectations to include such a vast space opened up an entirely new perspective. Not only were the possibilities were inviting; also to be considered was the location, which was ideal; the possibility of development; and the interest and support of the local government. Beyond the mere physical properties such as architecture and size are the ways in which these attributes are utilised. The vision of the Tate Modern thus far seems to be on the cutting edge. The best museums of the future willseek to promote different modes and levels of interpretation by subtle juxtapositions of experience writes Nicholas Serota. He further asserts that the best museums will contain somerooms and works that will be fixed, the pole star around which the others will turnin this way we can expect to create a matrix of changing relationshipsto be explored by visitors according to their particular interests and sensibilities (54-55). As Deuchar hassaid, we no longer choose to relate a single narrative of British art and culture, but to explore a network of stories about art and about Britain, with our collections at its core (Foreward to Humphreys book). And has Nittve has pointed out the Tate at Millbank used to be the big mother ship, where everything sat curators, administration, conservation, etc. Now were moving to something more like a federation (Frankel). The Tate Modern, the necessary extension of this core, may in fact be viewed as a pole star in itself, at the forefront of the modern art scene, with a world of limitless potential ahead. Reference List Adams, Brooks, Lisa Jardine, Martin Maloney, Norman Rosenthal, and Richard Shone. 1997. Sensation: Young British Artists from the Saatchi Collection. London: Royal Academy of Arts. Blazwick, Iwona and Frances Morris. 2000. Showing the Twentieth Century. In Tate Modern: The Handbook, eds. Iwona Blazwick and Simon Wilson, pp. 28-39. Berkeley: U of CA Press with Tate Gallery Publishing Limited. Craig-Martin, Michael. 2000. Towards Tate Modern. In Tate Modern: The Handbook, eds. Iwona Blazwick and Simon Wilsonpp. 12-23.Berkeley: U of CA Press with Tate Gallery Publishing Limited. Frankel, David. April 2000. Art Forum. http://www.24hourscholar.com/p/articles/mi_m0268/is_8_38/ai_61907715  Accessed May 26, 2005. Humphreys, Richard. 2001. The Tate Britain Companion to British Art. London: Tate  Publishing. Insight Guides: Museums and Galleries of London. 2002. Basingstoke, Hants: GeoCenter InternationalLtd. Lewison, Jeremy. 2000. History Memory/Society. In Tate Modern: The Handbook, eds. Iwona Blazwickand Simon Wilsonpp. 74-93. Berkeley: U of CA Press, with Tate Gallery Publishing Limited. Massey, Doreen. 2000. Bankside: International Local. In Tate Modern: The Handbook, eds. Iwona Blazwick and Simon Wilsonpp. 24-27.Berkeley: U of CA Press with Tate Gallery Publishing Limited. Moorhouse, Paul. Still Life/Object/RealLife. 2000. In Tate Modern: The Handbook, eds. Iwona Blazwickand Simon Wilsonpp. 58-73. Berkeley: U of CA Press with Tate Gallery Publishing Limited. Mundy, Jennifer. 2000.Landscape/Matter/Environment. In Tate Modern: The Handbook,eds. Iwona Blazwick and Simon Wilsonpp. 40-53.Berkeley: U of CA Press with Tate Gallery Publishing Limited. Serota, Nicholas. 1996. Experience or Interpretation: The Dilemma of Museums of Modern Art. WalterNeurath Memorial Lectures, London: Birkbeck College. Shone, Richard. 1997. From Freeze to House: 1988-94. In Sensation: Young British Artists from the Saatchi Collection. London: Royal Academy of Arts. Wilson, David M., ed. 1989. The Collections of the British Museum. London: British MuseumPress. Wilson, Simon. 2000. Nude/Action/Body. In  Tate Modern: The Handbook, eds. Iwona Blazwick and Simon Wilsonpp. 94-107. Berkeley: U of CA Press with Tate Gallery Publishing Limited. What is mental health? What is mental health? What is mental health? Mental health refers to our emotional wellbeing, it is all about how we think, feel and behave. The relevance of working with patients with mental health problems for me will be a challenge to start with. While on my placement I come across many patients why are suffering with Alzheimer and Dementia and most are suffering with mental health disorders of various kinds. In my central discussion I intend to cover the case of one patient named Joe who has metal health problems. Mental health is a term that encompasses a range of experiences and situations. It can be an on going experience from mental wellbeing through to a severe and enduring mental illness affecting a persons overall emotional and psychological condition. Incidents in life such as bereavement, financial and personal happiness such as the way we feel about ourselves can lead to depression and anxiety. Mental illness may be experienced by people who have a mental health problem to such a degree that they may be diagnosed as having a mental illness, requiring the involvement of specialist services and support. Consequently, some people with mental illness will need no support, others may need only occasional support, and still others may require more substantial, ongoing support to maintain their quality of life. To understand the difference between mental health and mental illness specifically relates to both the length of time and severity of the changes to a persons behaviour thought patterns and display of emotions. The more severe and lengthy the impact of these changes, the more a person may struggle to manage their everyday life and the greater the chances of them developing a mental illness. One mental health problem that an individual may experience could be through the loss of a loved one. People who are already suffering with a mental health issues are going to find that the trauma of discovering that some one who they loved has passed away will be an even greater burden on their already mental fragility. Such feelings that one will experience after being told about the death of a close relation can range from depression, suicidal thoughts, feelings of hopelessness, loneliness and unable to cope with daily life. The mental health state of this individual patient would give me a lot of concerns after such a shock as a bereavement of a close relative. His mental health state before this news was given to him, was giving me great concerns as he was already showing signs of suicidal tendencies. This gentlemens demure was one of a frail individual lacking any self esteem and of a nervous disposition. Other symptoms noticed were a sense of instability, inability to communicate verbally in a precise and understandable manner. As a nurse the care and assistance I can assist the patient with would be to speak to the patient in a quieter none judgmental manner and listen in attentively to what the patient has to say dependant on the severity of the mental illness the patient suffering and his behavior would really be an indication as to what help I could be most useful to assisting him/her in. If the patients mental illness is severe and of a violent nature the nurse would have to understand her limitation and abilities before confronting the patient. Otherwise one you could do more harm than good and put your self in danger. If you as a nurse feel comfortable and confident in your own judgment with the placement you can then start to talk and listen to what the patient has to say. It is important to talk to the patient in a non professional spoken manner, using none technical word and phrases, so that the patient feels comfortable and confident in your approach to them. For this assignment the chosen topic will be depression. The patient in this case study will have his name protected by the NMC code of professional conduct 2009 and for that matter he will be referred to as Joe. Joe was admitted into hospital during my placement. Joe was admitted onto the ward after suffering a fractured femur when he fell to the ground coming down his stairs in his house. He was calling out for help and was discovered one hour later by a neighbour who was passing by his house. On admission Joes medical notes indicated that Joe has a history of depression and is on a daily medication of Fluoxetine which has a brand name of Prozac. Joe is British gentlemen aged 68 years old and Joe has now been separated from his wife for the last 8 years. He has three grown up sons but does not now have any contact or get any support from them. Joe dwells alone in a council run flat and his occupation was a bus driver. His depression over the years had made him isolated and a reclusive person. He stated that he had been a depressive person on and off for his whole life and that his depressive state had only now in old age become a hindrance to his normal lifestyle, thus accumulating in recent bouts of dizziness, fainting and the subsequent breaking of bones after falls. Joe was quite lucky this time around in that his fall from the stairs was quite a short fall of some 4 steps, if he had fallen from the top flight of stairs he could be in hospital with far greater injuries than what he actually sustained and his fall could have been fatal. Reference Mental health http://www.liv.ac.uk/counserv/self_help/mental_health/definition_mhealth.htm Difference illness and health Bowers, L. â€Å"; The Social Nature of Mental Illness†, 1998, Routledge. Bereavement: Studies of Grief in Adult Life (Paperback) by Colin Murray Parkes (Author), Holly Prigerson (Author) 1st edition 1972, page 1 Appendix Action Plan Summary: The Story Of Deirdre Essay Summary: The Story Of Deirdre Essay In the middle ages, there were a lot of stories written that were tied together with the culture in which they were written by. Some even had an intense connection with the author that wrote them. A few examples are Thorstein the Staff- Struck in which was tied with the Norse culture, Everyman which has a Christian tie, and The Story of Deirdre with an Irish Celtic tie. To me the one that has the strongest tie to its culture is that of The Story of Deirdre and the Celtic culture. Just from reading the story and knowing a little about the Celtic culture will make this evident. So Ill start by giving you a little background or brief summary from the story. First Ill start by giving you a brief summary of The Story of Deirdre. The story started off with a gathering of warriors and counselors and their wives and kids. The host is Felim MacDall. His wife is pregnant with a child. All of a sudden the unborn child screams from within its mother loud enough for all of the guests to hear it. After so a Druid named Cathbad tells the prophecy of the child. It is a girl and she will be named Deirdre, but she will cause a great amount of grief and also cause the death of many kings. Hearing this prophecy the King of Ulster, Conchubar mac Nessa wanted Deirdre for himself. So her family agreed and gave her to him. He thought he would wait for her to turn of marrying age and then they would be together forever. However a young warrior named Naoise came and Deirdre fell in love with him. They eventually ran away together causing a great deal of anger with Conchubar mac Nessa. Time passed and Conchubar mac Nessa agreed to let them return to the kingdo m unharmed. That was a lie. Naoise was killed. But still Deirdre didnt want him so he gave her to one of his warriors, MacDurthacht. Deirdre couldnt stand the fact that she was being used like this so while she was in a chariot going down the road she put her head out of the window and smashed it on some passing rocks, which killed her. In a few parts of that summary the Irish Celtic culture ties in with The Story of Deirdre. The beginning in which they are all gathered up is one. It is very typical of the Irish Heroic Age tradition for it all to start off with a large gathering where they are eating and drinking. The supernatural screaming of the unborn child also added to this tradition. Then the next thing would be the entrance of a druid. The druid comes in and gives a prophecy that sets the outcome of the future. All of these examples ties the story with an Irish Heroic Age tradition. Another connection between the Irish Celtic culture and The Story of Deirdre is how Deirdre kills herself. The Irish Celtic people believed that the skull was where the soul rested, not the heart. The Celtic people were well known for the fact that they were the only known to date head hunters. They cut the heads off of the warriors they killed because they believed it to bring them supernatural abilities. Also when one of them died, the remaining living warriors would find the dead warriors bodies and crack their skulls. This was because they believe that the soul could not travel to the afterlife if it were not possible for it to leave the skull. So in the case of Deirdre she wasnt going to continue life with Conchubar mac Nessa and his warrior so she decided to kill herself. But without cracking her skull, her soul wouldnt be able to move on to the afterlife. So in a split second she hung her head out of the Carriage window and cracked her head against some passing rocks. The Story of Deirdre also portrays its characters as being associated with the manner in which the Celtic personalities were portrayed then and continued to be portrayed now. One example is that of Conchubar mac Nessa. He planned on marrying Deirdre from before she was even born. This meant that he had to wait till she turned of age. This was often the case in the Celtic culture. Old men would declare a marriage to a young teenage girl before she was even the age to birth a child. This happened often with high ranked men such as counselors, warriors, and high up others. Also the girls that they declare marriage to often had a high social status themselves, most being kings or counselors daughters. Another example in which The Story of Deirdre ties in with the Celtic culture is that it has a similar format in which all of the other stories followed. Started off with a large group of people feasting or just a basic meeting. The characters are all basically believable but then it adds a supernatural event. In this case the unborn child screaming from within its mothers womb. The rest of the story is filled with a controversy between to highly rated people, until the death of one of them. Also the story was based on the determination of fate. Deirdre was destined to cause all of this drama and also the death of these men. The middle ages period was filled with great works of literature that reflected the culture in which it was written and some of the time even reflected the author that wrote it. The stories I mentioned in the beginning are just a few examples that can be used to prove this true. The Story of Deirdre gave a good insight into the Celtic culture. Whether it be the characters personalities in the stories, the format in which the story was written, or the actions of some of the characters, Deirdre bashing her head on the rocks.